Nanorobots based on reconfigurable DNA origami arrays can work autonomously

Figure outlining the functioning of the DNA origami arrays and their reconfiguration. Credit: Pfeiffer et al.

Over the past decades, a growing number of robotics teams have started developing modular robots inspired by the ancient paper-folding art of origami. More recently, some of these teams started experimenting with origami structures that are comprised of folded strands of DNA and that could enable the development of new nano-scale systems for medical applications.

Researchers at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology have now introduced new nanorobots based on reconfigurable DNA-based origami structures.

These nanorobots, presented in a paper published in Science Robotics, are essentially networks of connected two-state DNA units (i.e., arrays) that can be programmed to react to various environmental signals.

“Reconfigurable DNA origami arrays were first introduced by Yonggang’s lab in 2017,” Philip Tinnefeld, co-senior author of the paper, told Tech Xplore.

“Shortly after that, we met at a conference and I expressed the idea that it would be nice to observe the rules of transformation by visualizing the status of single junctions in the array using dye quencher pairs and single-molecule spectroscopy. We only pursued this idea several years later when Dr. Dongfang Wang moved from my lab to Yonggang’s lab as a postdoc.”

The journey leading to the nanorobots’ development

Over the past few years, the researchers studied the transformation of the reconfigurable DNA origami arrays developed by Ke in detail using single-molecule probes. They also tried to influence this transformation using locks and other reconfiguration elements, integrating components that would allow the arrays to release tiny objects.

“We studied the role of the sequences at the junctions for the array transformation, which led to the publication of two papers in Nature Communications in September 2024 and July 2025,” said Ke. “These works helped us to gain fundamental understanding of the nanoarray transformation.”

The team’s most recent paper was the result of an idea by Fiona Cole and Martina Pfeiffer, two Ph.D. students at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. These students realized that the origami arrays created by Ke could be used to build a nanobot with programmable and multistep functions.

“Fiona and Martina realized the unique potential of the reconfigurable arrays for multistep functions,” said Tinnefeld.

“They explored the idea of seeing the array as a hardware system in which each junction can be programmed by a software that is the locks, time delaying units, signaling units or cargo release units. This is a significant extension of previous work where the computation was typically related to a readout of a two-state system.”

The researchers also found that the arrays developed by Ke could be pre-loaded with trigger strands of DNA. These strands could supply energy to the nanorobots, allowing them to work autonomously without the need for external energy sources by basically storing energy as strain.

Workings and advantages of the DNA nanorobots

The nanoarrays developed by Ke can contain dozens of interconnected units, referred to as “anti-junctions.” Notably, these units can be individually modified to take on a specific function, such as receiving and processing inputs.

In addition, different units are interconnected and can thus communicate with each other. Cole and Pfeiffer leveraged both these qualities of the arrays to develop autonomous nanobots that could tackle complex tasks.

“The DNA-based nanobot represents a significant advancement in molecular nanorobotics, because the computation was typically limited to a readout of a two-state system in previous systems,” explained Ke.

“Another unique feature of this reconfiguration array is that it can be pre-loaded with energy so that they can work autonomously without further energy supply. This is a bit similar to a windup car that stores energy as strain. Effectively, we have built a nanoscale, ‘battery-powered’ machine, which computes and operates according to the information we pre-programmed into the nanobot.”

The researchers demonstrated that each junction in the arrays created by Ke can be programmed to function as an independent unit and tackle aspects of specific tasks. For instance, it can send specific signals or release tiny cargo.

“By testing and developing every function unit and combining them on the nanoarray, this autonomous nanobot with programmable functions materialized,” said Ke. “The robot was created using a multistate system as hardware, similar to an FPGA that can be programmed by a ‘software’ toolset of locks, transformation enhancers, timing units, single onset and offset as well as cargo release.”

A promising system for medical applications

The nanorobot developed by this team of researchers could soon be improved further and evaluated in the context of specific medical applications. Remarkably, the system can interact with various types of molecules, proteins and even light, which cannot be said of many previously introduced DNA-based nanotechnologies that only interact with nucleic acids.

A further advantage of the nanorobot is that it can operate autonomously, leveraging molecular processes known as allosteric interactions. In the future, it could prove promising for diagnosing various diseases or for delivering drugs at specific sites inside the human body.

“We would eventually like to adapt the nanorobot so that it can work in different environments,” said Tinnefeld and Ke. “We also plan to address the energy supply problem of nanorobots with the concepts of Brownian DNA computing.

“Moreover, we could use other energy sources (e.g., light) for the nanobot’s operation. Finally, the current design works on a 2D platform (the nanoarray), but we might explore a 3D system.”

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